Introduction: Historiographical Bias

Part I: The Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750 CE)

• 1 The Spread of Buddhism in Central Asia and Adjacent Regions before the Advent of the Arabs

  • Geography

  • West and East Turkistan

  • Han China

  • The Eastern and Western Turk Empires

  • The Situation of Buddhism in West Turkistan at the Advent of the Western Turks

  • The Decline of the Western Turks

  • Tibet

  • Gangetic India

  • Kashmir and Nepal

  • Summary

• 2 Sogdia and Bactria on the Eve of the Umayyad Period

  • Zoroastrian Relations with Buddhism

  • Zurvanism

  • White Hun Rule and Its Aftermath in Sogdia

  • Bactria

  • Gandhara

  • Summary

• 3 The First Encounter of the Muslims and Buddhist Asia

  • The Pre-Islamic Presence of Buddhism in North Africa and West Asia

  • The Establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate

  • The Umayyad Attack on Bactria

  • Previous Umayyad Experience with Non-Muslims in Iran

  • The Slow Advance of the Umayyids into Southern Sogdia

  • Summary

• 4 The First Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent

  • The Situation of the East-West Trade Routes

  • The Invasion of Sindh

  • The Occupation of Sindh

  • The Expedition to Saurashtra

  • Evaluation of the Sindhi Campaign

  • The Umayyad Recapture of Bactria

  • First Attempts to Spread Islam

• 5 Tibet on the Eve of the Arrival of the First Muslim Teacher

  • The Organized Bon Religion and the Native Tibetan Tradition

  • Songtsen-gampo’s Relation with Zhang-zhung

  • The Introduction of Buddhism

  • Adaptation of the Khotanese Script

  • The So-Called "Bon" Opposition Faction

  • The Reigns of the Following Two Tibetan Emperors

  • The Rule of Empresses

  • The Tibetan-Umayyad Alliance

  • Analysis of the Muslim Mission to Tibet

  • Refugee Monks from Khotan in Tibet

• 6 Further Umayyad Expansion in West Turkistan

  • The Shifting of Alliances and Control of Territories

  • The Reassertion of Umayyad Rule in Sindh

  • Umayyad Loss and Regaining of Sogdia

  • Analysis of the Tang Attacks on Umayyad-Held Sogdia

  • The Invitation of Sogdians to Mongolia and Their Subsequent Eviction

  • The Manichaean Factor

  • The Expulsion of Non-Han Buddhist Monastics from Tang China

  • Final Events of the Umayyad Period

Part II: The Early Abbasid Period (750 - Mid-Ninth Century CE)

• 7 The Rise of the Abbasids and Decline of Tang China

  • The Regional Context

  • The Founding of the Abbasid Caliphate

  • The Defeat of Tang China and the An Lushan Rebellion

• 8 The Religious Conversions of the Eastern Turks

  • First Contacts with Buddhism

  • The Adoption of the Sogdian Language for Secular Use

  • Religious Persecution in Han China and Sogdia

  • The First Written Translations of Buddhist Texts into Tocharian

  • The Sogdian Forgoing of Translating Buddhist Texts into Their Own Language at This Time

  • The Translation of Buddhist Texts into Old Turk

  • Analysis and Summary

• 9 The Religious Conversions of the Uighurs

  • The Initial Choice of Buddhism

  • Doubts about Buddhism in Face of Developments in Tang China and Tibet

  • Reasons for Choosing Manichaeism: The Wish to Maintain Friendly Relations with Tang China

  • Economic Benefits and Geopolitics

  • The Conversion to Manichaeism

  • Popular Resistance to the Conversion

  • Summary of the Central Asian Pattern of Religious Conversion

• 10 Islamic Sectarian Disputes and the Declaration of Jihads

  • Sectarian Discord within Islam during the Early Abbasid Period

  • The Abbasid Destruction of Valabhi

  • The Difference in Policy toward Manichaeism and Other Non-Muslim Religions

  • The Strong Interest of the Abbasids in Indian Culture

  • The Growth of Islam among Non-Muslims in West Turkistan 

  • Evaluation of the Destruction of Valabhi

  • The Abbasid Invasion of Gandhara

  • Analysis of the Abbasid Campaign and Victory

• 11 Tibetan Politico-Religious Maneuverings at the End of the Eighth Century

  • Tibetan Relations with China

  • The Invitation of Shantarakshita to Tibet

  • The Building of Samyay Monastery

  • Cultural Contacts with China

  • The Completion of Samyay Monastery

  • Peace with China and Establishment of the Tibetan Religious Council

  • Analysis of the Policy of the Tibetan Religious Council

  • Purge of the Xenophobes

  • Neutralization of the Pro-Tang China Faction

  • Summary of Tibetan Policy in Sogdia

  • Emperor Tri Relpachen

• 12 The Establishment of Buddhist Kingdoms by the Uighurs

  • The Kyrgyz Conquest of Mongolia

  • The Uighur Migration into Turkistan and the Gansu Corridor

  • Previous Uighur Familiarity with Buddhism

  • The Breakup of the Tibetan Empire

  • The Subsequent Political Division of East Turkistan and Gansu

  • The Repression of Buddhism in Han China

  • Analysis of the Repression

  • Aftermath

  • Effects of These Developments on the Uighurs’ Conversion to Buddhism

  • The Position of Islam at the End of the Early Abbasid Period

Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE)

• 13 The Establishment of New Empires in Central Asia

  • The Founding of the Qarakhanid Empire

  • Relations between the Qarakhanids and the Uighurs

  • Early Relations between the Qarakhanids and Tibet

  • The Saffarid Kingdom

  • The Samanid and Buyid Kingdoms

  • The Khitan Empire

• 14 The Founding of the First Two Turkic Islamic States

  • The Conversion of the Qarakhanids to Islam

  • Analysis of the Motives for the Conversion

  • Consolidation of the Qarakhanid Islamic State

  • The Rise of the Ghaznavids and the Fall of the Samanids

• 15 The Qarakhanid Campaign against Khotan

  • Khotanese Missions to Han China

  • The Position of Buddhism in Khotan

  • The Declaration of a Holy War

  • Analysis of the Kashgari Uprising

  • Evaluation of Using the Model of a Holy War to Describe the Khotanese Action in Kashgar

  • Evaluation of the Qarakhanid Action as a Holy War

• 16 Analysis of the Siege of Khotan

  • The Political and Religious Climate among the Tanguts

  • The Situation in the Tibetan Regions

  • King Yeshey-wo’s Efforts to Revitalize Buddhism in Western Tibet

  • Tibetan Military Aid to Khotan

  • Probable Qarakhanid Military Strategy

  • The Tangut Connection

  • Possible Military Agreements with the Tanguts

  • The Disappearance of Buddhism in Khotan

• 17 Tangut, Tibet, and Northern Song China in the Eleventh Century

  • Tangut Thwarting of Qarakhanid Plans for Further Expansion

  • Tangut Receipt of Han Chinese Buddhist Scriptures

  • Uighur and Yugur Assistance in Establishing Tangut Buddhism

  • Subsequent Sino-Tangut Political and Religious Relations

  • The Revival of Buddhism in Central Tibet

  • Qarakhanid Relations with Buddhists after the Fall of Khotan

• 18 The Ghaznavids and Seljuqs

  • The Ghaznavid Campaign in Gandhara and Northwestern India

  • Ghaznavid Attitudes toward Buddhism outside India

  • The Decline of the Ghaznavids and Rise of the Seljuqs

  • The Political and Religious Situation in Kashmir

  • Seljuq Expansion and Religious Policy

  • The Nizari Order of Assassins

• 19 Twelfth-Century Developments in Central Asia

  • The Establishment of the Jurchen Empire

  • The Political and Religious Situation in the Tibetan Regions

  • The Rise of Tibetan Cultural Influence on the Tanguts

  • The Qaraqitan Takeover of the Qocho Uighurs and Qarakhanids

  • The Spread of Islam among Central Asian Turks by Sufi Masters

• 20 The Ghurid Campaigns on the Indian Subcontinent

  • The Initial Military Drive across Northern India

  • The Conquest of Bihar and Bengal

  • The Occupation of Northern India

  • Evaluation of the Ghurid Damage to Buddhism

  • Repercussions on the Development of Buddhism in Neighboring States

  • Analysis of the Decline of Buddhism on the Indian Subcontinent

Bibliography